Question

discussion questions
is it true that “the good is that at which all things aim?” what about the difficult case of a murderer? if this claim is true, what does it tell us about human beings?
what does it mean to look at the universe vertically with things arranged in a hierarchy pointing up? what is lost when this view of the world is discarded?

Explanation:

First Question (Is it true that "the good is that at which all things aim?"...):

This question relates to philosophical inquiry about the nature of "the good" and human teleology (goals/purposes). The quote is from Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, where he posits that every action aims at some good, with the highest good (eudaimonia) as the ultimate end. For a murderer, their actions might aim at a perceived "good" (e.g., power, revenge, self - interest), but this is a perverted or immoral good. If the claim holds, it implies humans are teleological beings—our actions are goal - directed, and we seek (even if mistakenly) what we perceive as good. Philosophy (subfield of Arts) is appropriate as it deals with ethical, metaphysical, and anthropological questions about human nature and value.

A "vertical" view of the universe (hierarchical teleology) is a traditional (e.g., Aristotelian - medieval) worldview where entities exist in a hierarchy of being, with lower beings aiming at the perfection of higher ones (e.g., minerals→plants→animals→humans→divine). Humans occupy a middle - high position, aiming at the divine (or highest good). Discarding this view (as in modern secularism) loses a sense of cosmic order, objective hierarchy of value, and a teleological framework for human purpose (e.g., no inherent "upward" direction or ultimate end beyond human - constructed goals). Philosophy (Arts subfield) is relevant as it explores metaphysical conceptions of the universe and human place within it.

Answer:

• On the truth of "the good is that at which all things aim": This aligns with Aristotelian teleology. All entities (animate/inanimate) have ends—acorns aim to become oak trees, and humans act to achieve goods (e.g., health, wealth, virtue). Even a murderer acts toward a "good" (their goal, though morally flawed).
• The murderer’s case: A murderer’s actions aim at a perceived good (e.g., satisfying anger, gaining control), but this is a morally corrupt "good." It shows that "good" can be misperceived, and moral education/discipline is needed to align actions with true (moral) goods.
• Implications for humans: If true, humans are inherently goal - directed (teleological). We seek what we believe is good, so our nature is oriented toward value - pursuit. This implies we have a rational capacity to discern true goods (vs. apparent goods) and are accountable for aligning our aims with moral/ultimate goods.

Second Question (What does it mean to look at the universe vertically...):