Question

government positions under hongwu were filled by
○ appointment.
○ election.
○ civil service exams.
○ officers in the military.

Explanation:

In the Hongwu Emperor's (founder of the Ming Dynasty) government, positions were filled through civil service exams, which were a key part of the imperial examination system to select officials based on merit (through exam performance) rather than just appointment, election, or military officer status.

Answer:

civil service exams.